الفهرس 
literature reviewOnly 14 pages are availabe for public view
 |  | from | 16 |  |  |
| | | from | 16 | | |
Abstract
Topographic surveying is the process of determin¬ing the positions on the earth surface of the natural and artificial features of a given locality, and of deto,vnining the configuration of the terrain. The location of the features is referred to as planimetry, and the configuration of the ground is referred to as topography. The purpose of the survey is to collect data necessary for the construction of a graphical portrayal of planimetric and topographic features. This graphical portrayal is. a, topographic map. Such a map shows both the horizontal distances between the features and their elevations above!a.given datum.
Topographic surveying or mapping is accomplished by ground methods requiring the use of the theodolite, plane table and alidade, level, hand level, tape 1, levelling staff, and taah-cometric methods in various combinations. Topographic mapping is also accomplished by aerial photogrammetrio methods.The preparation of a topographic map, including
the necessary control surveys, is usually the first step in the ploanning and designing of an engineering PrOJ9t