الفهرس 
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Abstract
Mild maternal iron deficiency and anemia have few significant repercussions on the iron status of the newborn, but severe anemia does have a strong influence. The risk of an infant developing iron deficiency is further increased if the umbilical cord is prematurely clamped [100]Both these risks are high in developing countries.
Infants and young children are the most adversely affected by iron deficiency because they are growing and developing at such a fast rate. If iron deficiency is not corrected, it leads to anemia and is associated with an impaired development of mental and physical coordination. Once afflicted, this impairment is not eradicated even after the anemia has been treated, impairing school achievement in older children[22].
There was no relationship between iron deficiency or IDA and MI,family income, mother’s working status (mother’s education), breastfeeding or chronic diseases. However, some studies have shown a high prevalence of IDA in families with lower education levels and a high number of family members.
The lack of iron supply for hemoglobin formation that leads todevelopment of anemia and inadequate intake of iron rich foods shouldbe considered as contributing factors. Other factors contributing tonutritional anemia were not explored in this study, such as vitamin Adeficiency and other nutrient deficiencies. Several studies have shown
that poor vitamin A status is associated with low hemoglobinconcentration[101].
Overall there is convincing evidence that education better equips individuals to respond to the HIV epidemic. Although education is associated with higher HIV prevalence in the early stages of an epidemic, in the later stages more educated individuals have less risky sexual behaviour and are less likely to be HIV positive, where a national prevention campaign has successfully reduced HIV prevalence. There have been few estimates of the likely impact of increasing primary school completion on the HIV epidemic. Taken together, there is a strong case for making expanded primary education and improved literacy a central part of the global response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic. There is insufficient evidence to make strong conclusions about the relationship between education and Anti-Retroviral Treatment ( ART) adherence in low-income countries. Of the three studies conducted so far, only one was with relatively poor patients in a public hospital. This found that those speaking English at home were more likely to adhere to their treatment. It is possible this relationship was mediated through improved education or literacy of those receiving treatment. The other two studies were conducted with more wealthy individuals paying for their own treatment. These studies found either no associated between adherence and education or found that more education was associated with poorer adherence. However, these studies compared those with or without complete secondary education and their findings may not be relevant to questions of basic education and literacy. Findings from the West suggest that there is a link between education and literacy. It seems that improving education levels in developing countries is likely only to improve Anti-Retroviral Treatment (ART ) adherence and, perhaps more importantly, greater education levels may serve to allay widespread fears amongst policy makers about the problems of adherence inAfrica. Long-term effects of poor health and nutrition in the pre-school years:Recent research has given significant attention to the links between the long term effects of health and nutrition in early childhood and educational outcomes. The key message from this literature is that an estimated 200 million children under 5 years old fail to reach their potential in cognitive development because of poverty, poor health and nutrition, and deficient care. Most of these children live in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. These disadvantaged children are likely to do poorly in school and subsequently have low incomes, high fertility, and provide poor care for their children leading to the intergenerational transmission of poverty. This loss of human potential has been estimated to lead to a 20% deficit in adult income and to have implications for national development [102].
There are many affordable and pro-poor strategies to improve cognitive development including increased cognitive stimulation, deworming, improving hygiene, water and sanitation and access to insecticide treated bed nets as well as supplementation of vitamin A (in the neonatal period and late infancy), preventive zinc supplements, iron supplements for children in areas where malaria is not endemic, and universal promotion of iodized salt. To eliminate stunting in the longer term, it has been suggested that these interventions should be supplemented by improvements in the underlying determinants of under nutrition, such as poverty, poor education, disease burden, and lack of women’s empowerment.
Mild maternal iron deficiency and anemia have few significant repercussions on the iron status of the newborn, but severe anemia does have a strong influence. The risk of an infant developing iron deficiency is further increased if the umbilical cord is prematurely clamped [100]Both these risks are high in developing countries.
Infants and young children are the most adversely affected by iron deficiency because they are growing and developing at such a fast rate. If iron deficiency is not corrected, it leads to anemia and is associated with an impaired development of mental and physical coordination. Once afflicted, this impairment is not eradicated even after the anemia has been treated, impairing school achievement in older children[22].
There was no relationship between iron deficiency or IDA and MI,family income, mother’s working status (mother’s education), breastfeeding or chronic diseases. However, some studies have shown a high prevalence of IDA in families with lower education levels and a high number of family members.
The lack of iron supply for hemoglobin formation that leads todevelopment of anemia and inadequate intake of iron rich foods shouldbe considered as contributing factors. Other factors contributing tonutritional anemia were not explored in this study, such as vitamin Adeficiency and other nutrient deficiencies. Several studies have shown
that poor vitamin A status is associated with low hemoglobinconcentration[101].
Overall there is convincing evidence that education better equips individuals to respond to the HIV epidemic. Although education is associated with higher HIV prevalence in the early stages of an epidemic, in the later stages more educated individuals have less risky sexual behaviour and are less likely to be HIV positive, where a national prevention campaign has successfully reduced HIV prevalence. There have been few estimates of the likely impact of increasing primary school completion on the HIV epidemic. Taken together, there is a strong case for making expanded primary education and improved literacy a central part of the global response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic. There is insufficient evidence to make strong conclusions about the relationship between education and Anti-Retroviral Treatment ( ART) adherence in low-income countries. Of the three studies conducted so far, only one was with relatively poor patients in a public hospital. This found that those speaking English at home were more likely to adhere to their treatment. It is possible this relationship was mediated through improved education or literacy of those receiving treatment. The other two studies were conducted with more wealthy individuals paying for their own treatment. These studies found either no associated between adherence and education or found that more education was associated with poorer adherence. However, these studies compared those with or without complete secondary education and their findings may not be relevant to questions of basic education and literacy. Findings from the West suggest that there is a link between education and literacy. It seems that improving education levels in developing countries is likely only to improve Anti-Retroviral Treatment (ART ) adherence and, perhaps more importantly, greater education levels may serve to allay widespread fears amongst policy makers about the problems of adherence inAfrica. Long-term effects of poor health and nutrition in the pre-school years:Recent research has given significant attention to the links between the long term effects of health and nutrition in early childhood and educational outcomes. The key message from this literature is that an estimated 200 million children under 5 years old fail to reach their potential in cognitive development because of poverty, poor health and nutrition, and deficient care. Most of these children live in South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. These disadvantaged children are likely to do poorly in school and subsequently have low incomes, high fertility, and provide poor care for their children leading to the intergenerational transmission of poverty. This loss of human potential has been estimated to lead to a 20% deficit in adult income and to have implications for national development [102].
There are many affordable and pro-poor strategies to improve cognitive development including increased cognitive stimulation, deworming, improving hygiene, water and sanitation and access to insecticide treated bed nets as well as supplementation of vitamin A (in the neonatal period and late infancy), preventive zinc supplements, iron supplements for children in areas where malaria is not endemic, and universal promotion of iodized salt. To eliminate stunting in the longer term, it has been suggested that these interventions should be supplemented by improvements in the underlying determinants of under nutrition, such as poverty, poor education, disease burden, and lack of women’s empowerment.