الفهرس 
History of Copper – Based Pigments in Ancient Egypt (Applications, Development , Mineralogy and Chemical Composition )Only 14 pages are availabe for public view
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Abstract
Summary
The thesis addresses several points including the characterizing and study of the mineral and
chemistral composition of copper – based pigments whether natural pigments "Azurite –
Malachite" or synthetic pigments "Egyptian blue – Egyptian green". The understanding and
characterizing of the salt and biological weathering mechanisms of ancient Egyptian copper-
based pigments that were mixed with different binding media are the main focus of this
research.
Mural paintings and Stelae in the archaeological sites and museums confront large challenge
either by their exposure to uncontrolled environmental conditions or by incompatible non-
professional conservation interventions, also inappropriate storage methods to Stelae in
museums from where un-controlled in temperature, relative humidity and lighting, that
finally damage to the paint appearance of stelae. Either the physical and chemical change is
finally because loss of cohesion cracks, flaking and complete loss of the paint layers. As a
result of different effects of temperature, relative humidity, salts and microorganisms are
responsible in change of the paint appearance have been occured. The paints changes are
produced from the chemical change in paint or binding media, a result of a reaction with
surrounding environment or a reaction between paint material and binding media with
surrounding environment.
The master includes three chapters, Chapter One "History of Copper-Based Pigments in
Ancient Egypt, Egyptian Funerary Stelae and Painting Technique". This chapter
discussed the Egyptian funerary Stelae and how it was developed from simple shape to shape
that gains its importance from the scenes and writings made on it and the pyramid top. The
oldest paintings date goes back to the first pharaonic dynasty. Each tomb has two paintings.
The paintings of individuals were the smallest in size and their hieroglyphic marks are not
clear. In the old era in his Helwan cemetery found many small paintings that were inscribed
and made of limestone, they were fixed on the tomb ceiling in some public tombs. At the end
of 2 th dynasty, these paintings were placed in the entrances of the tombs that were built of
mud brick. This situation continued in the ancient kingdom. The painting was fixed in one of
its gaps in the exterior wall. The importance of paintings was declined in reference to the
position of offerings in the tomb. By the end of the ancient kingdom and the first age of
transition, the stone paintings were set in the mastaba scenes. In Upper Egypt, a separated
development appeared and its aspects particularly appeared in the cemeteries of Dandara and
Nagaa Al-Deir in the first age of transition. In the beginning, offering scenes appeared on the
paintings and carriers of offerings and servants appeared in the age of first transition. From
the 11 th dynasty, paintings of round top appeared again. Also this chapter contained the
painting techniques from Tempera technique where the technique of Stela (case study) is
Tempera technique, and this chapter contained the study of copper based pigments that were
used in decorate the tombs and temples from divided to natural pigments (azurite, malachite)
and artificial pigments (Egyptian blue, Egyptian green) and how to prepared Egyptian blue
and the studied the binding media that was used with copper-based pigments (animal glue,
arabic gum and glair).
Chapter Two "Deterioration Mechanisms of Copper – Based Pigments". The chapter
dealt with the effects of the salt and biological weathering on copper-based pigments. Also it
included weathering, the patterns of weathering and the most important salts which attack
archeological buildings and the effect of salt weathering (physical, chemical role) on the
damage of pigments. This chapter also dealt with the degradation of azurite, malachite, and
Egyptian blue and Egyptian green by salts as well as the color (blackening\ darkening and
copper chloride cancer). Biodeterioration of copper-based pigments and effect fungi, bacteria,
algae and lichens have been studied.
Chapter Three "Materials and Methods"This chapter contained the results of the
experimental and practical studies that were carried out to investigate the aspects of physical
and chemical changes to Stelae (Egyptian Museum – El Tahrier – Egypt and Egyptian
Museum – Turin - Italy), and the synthesis of Egyptian blue from natural materials to study
the different effects on it. UV (artificial, natural), study the effect of salt weathering on
copper-based pigments, biological weathering and the fungi effect on copper-based pigments,
animal glue and prepared some nanomaterial to cleaning and consolidation of Stelae.
This chapter has been recognized the investigation and technique of the Stelae from structural
composition and the use of the Fourier transform infrared to identify the binding media, and
deterioration products with the aim of assessing its present state of conservation to finally
justify the treatment procedures. The digital light microscope, stereomicroscope, scanning
electron microscope were connected with dispersive energy, multispectral imaging, portable
x-ray fluorescence, x-ray diffraction and colorimetric measurements were employed for the
technical analysis and assessment of the present conservation state of the Stelae. The
investigation of the Stela (Egyptian Museum-El Tahrier-Egypt) confirmed that the Stela was
applied with the Tempera technique and The Stela from the age of Seti 1 to (Iy) that was
discovered in 1904 in Fayoum – Kom Medinet Ghurab (Moeris). This Stela goes back to the
new kingdom 19 th dynasty. The Stela of Iy was found to serve in the Egyptian Museum – El
Tahrier - Egypt by the number (SR 4\14199) (JE36850). The Stela was stored in the store 19
in the ground floor (Egyptian Museum-El Tahrier), and moved to the restoration laboratory.
This is a rectangular with round edges. Analytical confirmation of Stela included, blue
pigments (Egyptian blue), red pigment (Hematite), black pigment (carbon black), support
(limestone- calcite) and binding media (Animal glue) has been investigation. The study
confirmed that the major reasons in darkening of Egyptian blue are the effect of the salts
(NaCl-Na 2 CO 3 ), microbial damage, and the unsuitable storage, where after discovering the
Stela; it has been put in the store (Egyptian Museum-El Tahrier) in uncontrolled temperature
and relative humidity. This work focused on the studying of physical and chemical changes
of mural paintings and this study has been carried out on the copper-based pigments such as
(Egyptian blue, Egyptian green, malachite and azurite) and the Egyptian blue (Synthesis). A
microbiological study has been also done. This study included the isolation of fungi asolatied
with Stelae, identifying them and investigating their effects on copper based pigments as well
as the binder (animal glue). Moreover this study was subjected to the synthesis of
nanomaterials and studing their antifungal activites.
As a part of the research, experimental samples were prepared with the same stratigraphy of
the Stela and were subjected to UV (artificial, natural) and salt aging. Biological aging after
the identifying of microorganisms in Stela. Microscopy, colorimetric measurements and
multispectral imaging, FTIR and XRD were carried out to investigate the physical and
chemical changes of paints before and after aging and preparation some nanomaterial to
cleaning and consolidation the Stela, preparation of Nanogel, Nanolime and preparation of
Nanosilver from Aspergillus terreus.