الفهرس 
INTRODUCTIONOnly 14 pages are availabe for public view
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Abstract
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder defined by high blood glucose and characterized by insulin deficiency or insulin resistance. DM can be classified into three widely accepted forms, involving, type 1 diabetes mellitus (T1DM), type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), and gestational DM (Salazar-García et al., 2021).Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), which accounts for approximately 90% of all cases of DM, is characterized by persistent hyperglycemia, insulin resistance and β-cell dysfunction (Lee et al., 2020). The global prevalence of diabetes was estimated as 463 million patients (9.3%) in 2019, which is expected to increase to 578 million (10.2%) by 2030 and 700 million (10.9%) by 2045 (Saeedi et al., 2019).Increased insulin secretion or β-cell mass can compensate for normal β-cells’ insulin resistance by releasing more circulating insulin; however, insufficient compensation leads to glucose intolerance and hyperglycemia aggravation. When pancreatic β-cells become fatigued, they can no longer overproduce insulin, and diabetes occurs (Skyler et al., 2017).